Information System: 2012

Friday 5 October 2012

The Work Environment

Organization can increase employee effectiveness by paying attention to the health concerns in today's work environment.
One of most common form of IT worker related injury is repetitive strain injury(RSI)
Repetitive strain injury is an injury caused by working incorrectly for a prolonged period of time.
In order to protect employees against work related injuries it is essential to look into ergonomics.
Ergonomics is the study of designing and positioning computer equipment for employee health and safety.

Privacy Issues

Another important issue of information system is privacy.
The issue of privacy is important because data on an individual can be collected, stored and used without the person's knowledge or consent.
The right to privacy at work is also an important issue.
Recently, companies that have been monitoring their employees have raise concerns
These computer systems directly tie in with the workstations.
Email also raises some interesting issues about work privacy.
Federal law permits employers to monitor email sent and received by employees.

In computing, backup storage is storage that is intended as a copy of the storage that is activity in use so that if the storage medium such as a hard disk fails and data is list on the medium it can be recovered from the copy.

Types of Backup

Full backup

A full backup is a backup of every file on a file system whether that file has changed or not.

Incremental backup

Incremental backups also back up only the changed data, but they only back up the data that has changed since the last backup-be it a full or incremental backup.
So if you do an incremental backup on Tuesday you only back up the data that changed since the incremental backup on Monday.

Differential backup

A differential backup backs up only the files that changed since the last full backup.
For example On Monday you back up only the files that changed since Sunday, on Tuesday you back up only the files that changed since Sunday and so on until next full backup.

Contigency Planning

Some risk cannot be reduced
Plan for risk occurrence
Contingency planning is a systematic approach to identifying what can go wrong in a situation.
Benefit?
Minimize loss
Prevent panic

Protection Information

Apply Risk Management Techniques

Risk is a potential danger to an asset or something valuable such as computer system that may arise from some present process or future event.
Risk management is a systematic process of making a realistic evaluation of the true level of risks to your business
Before risks can be properly managed they need to be identified - you can begin with these questions.

What can go wrong?
What can we do to prevent it?
What do we do if it happens?

Prepare Disaster Recovery Plan
Use Backup

Preventing computer related crime

Cryptography: How it works?

it is a variable value that is used by cryptographic algorithms to produce encrypted text or decrypt encrypted text.
The length of the key reflects the difficulty to decrypt from the encrypted message.

Cryptography is first appeared in closed commercial, financial network and military systems.
We can send/receive secure e-mail, connect to secure website to purchase goods or obtain services.
Problem: how do we implement them in this global open network, internet?
To what level of encryption is sufficient to provide safe and trust services on the Net?

The Public Key Infrastructure enables users of an unsecured public network such as the internet to securely and privately exchange data through the use of a public and private cryptographic key pair that is obtained through a trusted authority.
A digital signature is basically a way to ensure that an electronic document (e-mail, spreadsheet, text file) is authentic.

This is NOT scanned signature!!
Authentic means that you know who created the document and you know that it has not been altered in any way since that person created it.
A message is generated between a 128-bit and a 256 bit through an algorithm. This generated number is then encrypted with the senders private key and added to the end of the message.
The recipient receives the message they run the message through the same hash algorithm and generate. They then decrypt the signature using the senders public key and provided the two numbers match they know the message is from who that is has not been modified.

Anti-virus software to ensure that malicious program such as worms and viruses do not damage or destroy vital information.
Anti-virus programs or utilities prevent viruses and recover the computer from them if the computer is infected.
Using intrusion detection software monitors the system and network resources and notifies of any unauthorized access.
The following are protocols that will help protect systems against hackers

Install string user authentication and encryption capabilities
Install the latest security patches
Disable guest accounts and null user accounts
Do not provide easy log in procedures for remote users.
Give an application its own server
Restrict physical access to the server
Turn audit trails on
Consider installing caller ID
Install a corporate Firewall
Install anti-virus software
conduct regular IS security audits
Verify and exercise frequent data backups for critical data.
Have contingency plan in place.

Attacks

Computer Crime

A computer's ability to process millions of pieces of data in less than a second can help a thief steal data worth thousands or millions of dollars.
An example is the theft people's money through fake Internet Banking website.
In general, intruders need two capabilities to commit most computer crimes:

The ability to gain access to the system this is usually via a password
The ability to manipulate the system

There are three common practices for gaining a person's password

Social engineering: the practice of talking a critical password out of an individual
Dumpster diving: searching through garbage for important pieces of information that help crack an organization's computers.
Identity theft: is a crime in which an imposter obtains key pieces of personal identification information, such as social security or drivers license numbers in order to impersonate someone else.

A computer can also be the object of crime, rather than a tool for committing it.
Tens of millions of dollars of computing time and resources are stolen every year.
Computer crimes fall into the following categories:

Illegal access and use

Crimes involving illegal system use of computer services are a concern to both government and business
A hacker is a person who enjoys computer technology and routinely with the permission of business attempts to break into systems to access their vulnerabilities.
Script kiddies are wannabe crackers with little technical skills who download programs such as scripts that automate the job of breaking into computers.
Insiders are disgruntled employees wishing to compromise computer systems to outsiders.

Data alteration and destruction

Malicious programs include

Worms

A worm is an independent program that replicates its own program files and sends itself to another host, An example includes the blaster worm.
A worm tunnel through the computer's memory and hard drive and it's a type of virus that replicates itself but unlike virus it does not alter any files on the machine. A worm can still cause chaos by multiplying so many times that take up all the computer's available memory or hard disk space. If a worm consumes the memory of a computer, the computer will take a long time to access files and the computer will not be able to save or create files until the worm has been destroyed. Worm can be activated by themselves.
Most worms consist of the following parts

Attack:Gain control over a new host
Infect: Install a copy of the virus
Hide: Cover traces, avoid detection
Scan: Find more victims, repeat

Some worms also have a specific payload

Collect data about the infected host
Install a backdoor for later use
Launch DOS attack on another host.

Viruses

A virus is a program that attaches itself to other programs, An example includes the CIH virus.
A virus is a small programs or script that can negatively affect the health of computer. This little programs can create files, move files, erase files consume the memory of the computer and cause the computer not to function correctly. Some virus can duplicate themselves attach themselves to programs and travel across networks. It becomes active when people are using the computer.

Logic bombs

A logic bomb is a virus designed to "explode" or execute at specified time and date.

Trojan

A trojan horse is a program that appears useful but actually masks a destructive program.

Information and equipment theft

One of the most common methods of stealing information and equipment is through password sniffer.
A password sniffer is a small hidden program in a network or computer system that records identification numbers and passwords.

Software and Internet piracy

Software piracy is copying or selling software without the vendors permission. Examples include making illegal backups of computer games.
Internet piracy: Internet piracy is the unlawful reproduction and/or distribution of any copyrighted digital file. Examples: music files, video and movies, e-books.

Computer related scams.

People have lost millions of dollars on real estate, travel, stock and other business scams.
Today, many of these types of scams are being performed by computers, An example includes a famous Nigerian scandal in which a man claims that you can make million dollars if you send him US$10. In six months the crime ring managed to steal over US $4 million.

Information and System Security

A business computer system stores highly sensitive information such as staff or client's personal information
Business strategic information
Financial information
To protect the information confidentiality integrity and availability a computer system should good security in place.
Vulnerability of information system

Availability
Integrity
Confidentiality
Authenticity

Systems Review

Systems review is the final phase in the software development life cycle.
System review is the process of analyzing systems to make sure they are operating as intended.
There are two types of review procedures;

Event driven: review triggered by problem or opportunity such as an error, corporate merger or new market for product.
Time driven: review performed after a specific amount of time.

System Maintenance

Systems maintenance is the fifth phase in the software development life cycle
Systems maintenance involves checking changing and enhancing the system to make it more useful in achieving user and organizational goals.
Reasons for maintenance include:

Changes in business process
Requests from stake holders, users and managers
Bugs or errors in the programs
Technical or hardware problems
Corporate mergers and acquisitions
Government regulations.

Types of maintenance

Slipstream upgrade: a minor upgrade, typically a code adjustment or minor bug fix.
Patch: a minor change to correct a problem or make a small enhancement
Release: a significant problem change (i.e. service pack for windows profucts.
Version: a major program change.

Systems Implementation

The fourth phase in the software development life cycle is the system implementation phase.
The system implementation phase is where the system is installed, data preparation is completed and all training is conducted.
Typical steps

Hardware acquisition
Software acquisition
User preparation
Personnel: hiring and training
Site preparation
Data preparation
Development
Installation
Testing
Start-up
User acceptance testing

System Design Phase

The third phase in the software development life cycle is system design.
System design is concerned with designing the processes that will solve a business problem.
When designing an information system there are two dimensions that need to be considered

Logical design: design on paper
Physical design: design needed to implement components of the system

The following issues need to be considered in your physical design

Hardware design: all computer equipment, including input, processing and output devices must be specified by performance characteristics.
Software design: all software must be specified by capabilities.
Database designL the type, structure and functions of the database must be specified.

Logical and physical design can be accomplished using either the traditional structured approach or the object oriented system approach.
Using the OO approach, we design key objects and classes of objects in the new or updated system.
The final step in system design is to evaluate the various alternatives and select one that will offer the best solution for the organization goals.
There are techniques used for evaluation

Feasibility Matirx
Candidate Matrix

Systems Analysis phase

The system analysis phase is the second phase in the software development life cycle.
The following steps are performed in the system analysis phase:

Collecting appropriate data and requirement
Analyzing that data and requirement
Preparing a report on the existing system, new system requirements and project priorities.

Data collection involves many different processes such as

Structured interviews
Unstructured interviews
Direct observations
Questionnaries
Statistical sampling

System Investigation Phase

The system investigation phase is the first phase in the traditional SDLC of a new or modified business information system.
A key step in the system investigation phase is a feasibility study which assesses technical, economic, legal, operational and schedule feasibility.
The final decision of the system investigation phase rests with the steering committee or client.

Factors affecting system development success

Factors that affect system development success include

Degree of change
Quality and standard
Use of project management tools
Use of computer aided and software engineering(CASE) models
Object oriented systems development

Rapid Application Development(RAD)

Rapid application development approach employs tools, techniques and methofologies designed to speed application development.
Examples include PowerBuilder and ORACLE which let organizations develop systems much quicker.
For appropriate projects, this approach puts an application into production sooner than any other approach.
Documentation is produced as a by-product of completing project tasks.
RAD forces teamwork and lots of interaction between users and stake holders.
This intense SDLC can burn out systems developers and other project participants,
This approach requires systems analysts and users to be skilled in RAD system development tools and RAD techniques.
RAD requires a larder percentages of stakeholders and users time than other approaches.

System Development Life Cycle

The system development life cycle(SDLC) is a methodology for developing information systems.
It has five phases

Analysis
Design
Development
Implementation
Maintenance and Review

Formal review at the end of each phase allows maximum management controls.
This approach creates considerable system documentation,
Formal documentation ensures that system requirements can be traced back to stated business needs.
It produces many intermediate products that can reviewed to see whether they meet users' needs and confirm to standard.
Users get a system that meets the needs understood by the developers, this may not be what was really needed.
Documentation is expensive and time consuming to create. It is also difficult to keep current.
Often users needs go unstated or are misunderstood.
Users cannot easily review intermediate products and evaluate whether a particular product (i.e data flow diagram) meets their business needs.
System development life cycle is not the only form of systems development.
Two main types of systems development are prototyping and rapid application development.
Prototyping is an iterative approach to the system development process.
During each iteration, requirements and alternative solutions to the problems are identified and analyzed, new solutions are designed.
An example is prototyping a new car. Many prototypes are designed until the final car design is developed.
There are two main types of prototyping

Operational prototyping: a functioning prototype that access real data files, edits input and makes necessary computations and comparisons.
Non operational prototyping: a mock up or model that include output and input specifications and formats.

System Development

System development is the analysis and design of computer systems including the development and implementation of application.
Effective systems development requires a team effort, The team usually consist of

Stakeholders
Users
Project manager
System analysts
Programmers
Support personnel

The overall objective of system development is to achieve business goals, not technical goals by delivering the right information system to meet the business problem.
The success or failure of a system is measured against critical factors for success.
Example of critical factors for success include meeting a specific budget and time frame.

Centralized databse

Centralized database is a single database in one location. All users and client applications connect directly to the DBMS and this means that the database is stored in only one location and everyone in the system is directly connected to it.

Advantage

Manageability
Speed of operation
Portability
Integration is easy
Upgrades, backups, mirroring is a lot easier
Reduced redundancy
Reduced inconsistancy
Enforced data security

Disadvantage

If center goes down, everything is down
It may be expensive and cumversome than it becomes ineffective
Installing and maintaining database are costly
A single database is particularly vulnerable to equipment failure,

Distributed Databses

Distributed processing involves placing processing units at different locations and linking them via telecommunications equipment.
A distributed database is a database in which data may be spread across several smaller databases connected via telecommunications devices.
Distributed database is a single database in one location. All users and client applications connect directly to the DBMS and this means that the database is stored in only one location and everyone in the system is directly connected to it.
Avantage

Access if faster
Processing is faster due to several sites spreading out the workload,
New sites can be added quickly and easily
Communication is improved,
It is user friendly
There is less danger of a single point failure
It has process independence

Disadvantage

Managing and controlling is complex
There is less security because data has so many different sites.
Data integrity
Data needs to be carefully partitioned to make the system as eddicinet as possible

Data Mining

Data mining is an information analysis tool that involves the automated disconvery of patterns and relationships within a warehouse.
Data mining's objective is to extract patterns, trends and rules from data warehouses to evaluate proposed business strategies.
Data mining is used extensively in marketing cross selling opportunities and pricing analysis.

Data marts

A data mart is a subset of a data warehouse.

Data mart is a database or collection of database designed to help managers make strategic decisions about their business and is smaller and focuses on a particular subject or department. Used by smaller organization.

Rather than store all the information on one massive enterprise database, data marts contain a subset of the data for a single aspect of the company's business- for example finance, inventory or personnel.

Data Washouse

A data warehouse is a database that holds business information from many sources in the enterprise, covering all aspects of the company's processes, products and customers.

Data warehouse is a collection of data designed to support management decision making and contains a wide variety of data that present a picture of business condition at a single point in time. Development of a data warehouse includes development of system to extract data from business database plus installation of a warehouse includes development of system to extract data from business database plus installation of a warehouse database system that provides managers flexibible access to the data. The term data warehousing generally refers to the combination of different data such as competitors data, historical data etc. Used by big organization.

For example, is Sears, their data warehouse currently is a 70TB system with 250 billion pages of stored text.

Database Applications

The type of data and information that managers needs to change as business processes change
A number of effective database applications can help managers meet their needs, among them are linking the company database to the internet and setting data warehouse and marts.

Selecting a Database Management System

The following needs to be considered when selecting the appropriate DBMS.

Database size
Number of concurrent users
Performance
Integration
Features
The Vendor
Cost

Database Administrator

A database administrator(DBA) is a highly skilled systems professional who performs all activities of maintaining a successful database systems.
A DBA is expected to have a proficient knowledge of the business, be proficient in the selected database they maintain and stay abreast of emerging technologies.

Database Management System(DBMS)

A Database Management System(DBMS) is a collection of computer programs for organizing the information in a database.
A DBMS supports the structure of the database in a standard format and provides tools for data input, verification, storage, retrieval, query and manipulation.

Types

The most popular relational DBMS for home us is Microsoft Access
Enterprise relational DBMS's include DB2, Oracle, SQL Server and MySQL.

Schema

A schema is the logical and physical design of a database
A sub-schema is a description of a subset of the database. Normally only programmers and managers need access to a sub-schema.

Creating/Modifying

Schema and sub-schema's are entered into the DBMS via a data definition language(DDL).
Databases are manipulated using a data manipulation language(DML).

Data Models

The structure of the relationship in most databases follows one of three database models.

Hierarchical
Network
Relational

Term

Data normalization: the process of taking complex set of data and converting it into a set of simple two demensional tables.
Selecting: data manipulation that eliminates rows according to certian criteria.
Joining: Data manipulation that combines two or more tables.

Data Modelling

Data modelling is a tool used to designing databases.
A Data Model is a diagram that consists of data entities and relationships. The most common data model is the Entity Relationship Diagram.
An Entity Relationship Diagram(ERD) uses basic graphical symbols to show the organization of and the relationships between data.

Data modeling and Databases

A database should be designed to store all data relevant to the business and provide quick access and easy modification.
When building a database you must consider the following

content: what data should be collected and at what cost?
access: what data should be provided to which users and when?
logical structure: how should data be arranged so it makes sense to the given user
physical organization: where should data be physically located?

The Database Approach

The database approach to data management is whereby a pool of related data is shared by multiple application programs.
Advantages

Reduced data redundancy
Improved data integrity
Easier modification and updating
data and program independence
better access of information
better overall protection of the data
shared data and information resources

The Traditional Approach

The traditional approach to data management is whereby separate data files are created and stored for each application program.
For example customer records are often maintained in separate files, with each relating to a specific purpose in the company such as shipping or billing.
There are several flaws with the traditional approach they include:

Data redundancy: duplication of data in separate files
Data integrity: the degree to which the data in any one file is accurate
Program dependence: concept where data for one application can be incompatible with another program.

Data management

Without data and the ability to process it, an organization would not be able to successfully complete most business activities.
For example it would not be able to pay employees, send out bills and order new inventory.
Data is organized in following hierarchy

bit
byte
character
field
record
file
database

Entities, Attributes and Keys

an entity is generalized class of people, places or things(objects). Example include employees, inventory and customers.
an attribute is a characteristic of an entity. For example, employee number, last name, first name and hire date.
a key is a field or set of fields that identifies a record
A primary key uniquely identifies a record.

Networks

A computer network is where two or more computers are connected by either physical kinks or wireless connections which have the ability to communicate and share resources with each other. To share resource and information.

Network topology

Bus topology

Bus networks use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the messages.
Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and do not require much cabling compared to the alternatives 10Base-2("ThinNet") and 10Base-5("ThickNet") both were popular Ether net cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. if more than a dew dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result. In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable.

Ring topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.
To implement a ring network one typically uses FDDI, SONET or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office building or school campuses.

Star topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called "hub node" that may be a network hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded twisted pair Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only tale down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (if the hub fails, however the entire network also fails.)

Tree topology

Tree topologies integrate multiple star topologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus, and each hub functions as the root of a tree of devices. This bus/start hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus or a star alone.

Wide Area Network(WAN)

A Wide Area Network is a linked computer network distributed across a wide geographical location.
You can have a number of different LAN's within the WAN (e.g. a company in New York might have a WAN to connect to its offices in Delhi)

OSI model

Layer	Info Transacted	TCP/IP Protocol
Application	Application message	HTTP, FTP, SNMP
Presentation	Compressed data
Session	Session messages
Transport	Multiple packets	TCP
Network	Packets	IP
Data Link	Frames	Ethernet, PPP
Physical	Bits	Wiring, cables

HTTP(Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

The underlying protocol used by the World Wide Web. HTTP defines how messages are formatted and transmitted and what actions web servers and browsers should take in response to various commands.

FTP(File Transfer Protocol)

The protocol for exchanging files over the Internet. FTP works in the same way as HTTP for transferring Web pages from a server to a user's browser and SMTP for transferring electronic mail across the internet in that like these technologies, FTP uses the internet's TCP/IP protocols to enable data transfer

SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol)

A set of protocols for managing complex networks. The first versions of SNMP were developed in the early 80s. SNMP works by sending messages called protocol data units (PDUs) to diffenrent parts of a network SMNP compliant devices called agents store data about themselves in Management Information Bases and return this data to the SNMP requesters.

TCP(Transmission Control Protocol)

TCP is one of the main protocols in TCP/IP networks. Whereas the IP protocol deals only with packets. TCP enables two hosts to establish a connection and exchange streams of data. TCP guarantees delivery of data and also guarantees that packets will be delivered in the same order in which they were sent.

TCP/IP(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol)

the suite of communication protocols used to connect hosts on the internet. TCP/IP uses several protocols the two main ones being TCP and IP. TCP/IP is built into the UNIX operating system and is used by the internet making it the de facto standard for transmitting data over networks. Even network operating systems that have their own protocols such as Netware also support TCP/IP

IP(Internet Protocol)

IP specifies the format of packets also called data-grams and the addressing scheme. Most netork combine IP with a higher level protocol called transmission control protocol (TCP) which establishes a virtual connection between a destination and a source.
IP by itself is something like the postal system, it allows you to address a package and drop it in the system, but there is no direct link between you and the recipient. TCP/IP on the other hand establishes a connection between two hosts so that they can sent messages back and forth for a period of time.
The current version of IP is IPv4. A new version called IPv or iPng is under development.

Main Network Components

Network Interface Card(NIC)

Installed in a slot with a cable plugged into the back
Plugged into a wall jack connection or into the hub/ switch directly
Modem

converts digital signals into analog form for transmission and incoming analog signals into digital signals across the telephone line.

Hub and Switches

operates at physical layer
acts as a connecting point
passive, active and intelligent hub

Switch

offers direct connection to a particular PC
Available for almost every OSI level

Routers

Operate at Internet Layer
Evaluate network traffic and stop local traffic from causing congestion
Filter out packets that need not be received
Expensive and difficult to operate

Gateways

Special purpose computer allowing communications between dissimilar systems on the network.
Operate at Application Layer primarily
Difficult to install and configure
Expensive

Security of information system

Firewalls

A system designed to prevent unauthorized access to or from a private network. Firewalls can be implemented in both hardware and software or a combination of both. Firewalls are frequently used to prevent unauthorized Internet users from accessing private networks connected to the Internet, especially intranets. All messages entering or leaving the intranet pass through the firewall which examines each message and blocks those that do not meet the specified security criteria.
In practice, many firewalls use two or more of these techniques in concert. A firewall is considered a first line of defense in protecting private information, For greater security data can be encrypted.
Packet filter: Looks at each packet entering or leaving the network and accepts or rejects it based on user defined rules. Packet filtering is fairly addition, it is susceptible to I spoofing.
Application gateway: Applies security mechanisms when a TCP or UDP connection is established. Once the connection has been made, packets can flow between the hosts without further checking.
Proxy server: Intercepts all messages entering and leaving the network. The proxy server effectively hides the true network addresses.

password protection
Encryption

The translation of data into a secret code. Encryption is the most effective way to achieve data security. To read an encrypted file, you must have access to a secret key or password that enables you to decrypt it. Unencrypted data is called plain text; encrypted data is refferred to as cipher text.
There are two main types of encryption ; asymmetric encryotion and symmetric encryption.

IP security
Intrusion detection systems

An intrusion detection system inspects all inbound and outbound network activity and identifies suspicious patterns that may indicate a network or system attack from someone attempting to break into or compromise a system.

Carriers and services

Telecommunication carriers provide the telephone lines, satellites, modems and other communications technology used to transmit data from one location to another.

Switched and dedicated lines

Switched and dedicated lines are standard telephone lines that carriers use to transmit data.
These lines use switching equipment to allow one transmission device to be connected to other telecommunication devices.

Private branch exchange

Private branch exchange(PBX) is a communication system that can manage both voice and data within a building and to outside lines.

Digital line subscriber

A digital subscriber line(DSL) is a communications line that uses existing phone wires to provide transmission speeds exceeding 500kps (fro 256 kbit/s to 40 Mbit/s)

it is medium for transferring data over regular phone lines and can be used to connect to the internet.
A technology that significantly increases the digital capacity of ordinary telephone lines into the home or office.
DSL speeds are based on the distance between the customer and telecommunication central office.

ADSL(Asynchronous digital subscriber line)

A type of combined internet and phone line, it is called asynchronous because the speed of data going out is slower than the data coming in.
A broadband connection.
A type of DSL which is a method of transferring data over copper telephone lines.
An ADSL shares ordinary telephone line by using frequencies above the voice band but the higher inter frequencies interface with regular telephone usage.

ADSL2

It adds new features and functionally targeted at improving performance and interoperability and adds support for new applications and services.
It reduces the initialization time from more than 10 seconds ( as it required for ADSK) to less than 3 seconds
It has the same signal footprints as ADSL.

ISDN

Integrated services digital network (ISDN) is a technology that uses existing common carrier lines to simultaneously transmit voice, video and image data in digital form.
Use Circuit switching technique
Package switch
Circuit Switch

T1 carrier

T1 carrier was developed by AT & T to increase the number of voice calls that could be handled through existing cables.
Use PCM (pulse code modulation) technique.
A T1 connection has a 1.544Mbps speed developed by 2 dozen 64 kbps channels.

Telecommunications

Telecommunication is transmitted using one of three following methods:

Simple: a channel that can only transmit one way (e,g, CB radio)
Hald-duplex: a channel that can transmit both way but not simultaneously. (e.g. amateur radio)
Full-duplex: a channel that can transmit both ways simultaneously (e,g, phone)

Bandwidth is the width range of frequencies that an electronic signal occupies on a given transmission.
Broadband comes from the word "broad bandwidth: and is used to descrive a high capacity two way link between an end user and access network suppliers capable of supporting full motion, interactive video applications.

Types of media

Twisted pair cable
Coaxial cable
Fiber optic cable
Microwave transmission
infrared transmission

Devices

A telecommunication device is one of various hardware devices that allow electronic communication to occur more efficiently.

Modem Devices

Modems are devices that convert computer digital signals into analog signals for transmission over a telephone line and converts the analog signal into a digital signal so the receiving computer can read the message.

multiplexes

A multiplexer is a device that allows several communication signals to be transmitted over a signal communication medium at the same time.

Utility tool

Utility software is a type of computer system software also referred to as service program, tool, service routine or utility routine. It's specifically designed to help the end user manage and tune the computer hardware.
It is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer abd it focuses on how the computer infrastructure operates. Due to this focus, utilities are often rather technical and targeted at people with an advanced level of computer knowledge.
Virus scanners and encryption utilities are the example of utility software.

Communication Systems

Telecommunication is the processof transmitting or receiving information over a distance by any electrical or electromagnetic medium.
Information may take the form of voice, video or data.
The transmission medium carried the signal. For example telephone wire carries a voice signal.
Synchronous transmission is messages using synchronization bytes instead of start/stop bits to control the transmission.
Voice and phone communications are example of synchronous communication.
Asynchronous transmission method is where messages are transmitted in unequal time intervals.
Transmission is controlled by start and stop bits on each character, rather than by clocking as in synchronous transmission,
Email is an example of asynchronous transmission.
Telecommunication medium is anything that carries signals between a sending and receiving device,
A computer network is a set of computers that are connected and able to exchange data.

Software Issues and Trends

Since software is an important part of computer systems issues such as software bugs, licensing, upgrades and global support have received increased attention.

Software Bugs

A software bug is a defect in a computer program that keeps it from performing in the matter intended.
Some bugs are subtler and can go unnoticed until it is to late. An example is the denial of service attack on Yahoo! in 1999.

Open Source Software

Open source software is software that freely available to anyone in a form that can be easily modified
The example is My SQL and php.

A number of open source programs are available including Linux and Apache.

advantage

Costomisability

Everybody has the right to modify the source code, This means the code can be implemented in order pieces of software and adapted to changing environment

Quality

In general, open source software gets closest to what user want because those users can have a hand in making. Users and developers make what they want and they make high quality of source.

Cost

Most current Open Source are available free of royalities
Individuals and smaller companies may aid in developing the software reducing number of programmers to pay the salaries.

disadvantage

No guarantee

It is impossible to know if a project will ever reach a suitable stage on time and even if it reaches, it may have many bugs or problems later and no one guarantees the software and nobody is bound to give you regular updates since it is free.

No support

Since it is free, there is no support even thought there are many helps available on the internet, the users have to have self-motivation to help them install and to run open software without any support.

Not reliable

Because the users can modify the source by themselves, the source could have some problems and may not be reliable.

Software Licensing

In general, software manufacturers want to license their software to lock in steady, predictable stream of revenue from customers.
Client should be aware of EULA.

EULA(End User License Agreement)

the type of license used for most software. An EULA is a legal contract between the manufacturer and/or the author and the end user of an application. The EULA details how the software can and cannot be used and any restrictions that the manufacturer imposes.
The contract between the licensor and purchaser, establishing the purchaser's right to use the software.

Software Upgrades

Software companies revise their programs and sell new versions periodically. In some cases the revised software offers new and valuable enhances.
Example of upgrades include service packs provide by Microsoft for their operating systems.

Global Software Support

Globalization has ensured that computer networks stretch to all corners of the earth. Software producers need to ensure they provide global support otherwise people will go to their competition instead.

Thursday 4 October 2012

Programming Language

Both operating and application software are written in coding schemes called programming languages.
There are many programming languages each with its own syntax(rule).
Programming languages have evolved like hardware to become more efficient and powerful.
The evolution of programming languages is typically discussed in generatrion.

First Generation Language

First generation language are machine language which requires the use of binary symbols(1's and 0's)\

Second Generation Language

Second generation languages overcome the difficulty involved in programming ion binary by introducing special characters. Assembly language for low level of language(alpha).

Example of second generation languages include assembly language such as alpha, MIS.

Third Generation Language

Third generation languages continued the trend towards symbolic code and away from specifically instructing a computer how to complete an operation.
Example include BASIC, COBOL, C and FORTRAN.

Fourth Generation Language

Fourth generation languages emphasize what type of output results are desired rather than how the programming statement are to be written.
Object oriented(small tolk, java, C++, Delphi)

Object Oriented

Object Oriented language separates data and action into objects. These objects all inter relate to perform a certain tasks.
Example include Java and C++

Types of Application Software

The key to unlocking the potential of any computer system is application software.
Application software run on top of the system software and is made to do a specific task, which have indirect access to the hardware. Any web browsers such as Internet explorer and fire fox are the examples of application software.
To use for specific use.
A company can either develop unique software called proprietary software ( customize the software not for open market) or purchase off the shelf software(COT)(Commercial of the shelf)(keeping in remind the common function).

Types of Operating Systems

Operating systems can be classified into the following classes.

Personal computing

Early operating systems for personal computers were very basic. however more advanced operating systems have been developed incorporating features previously only available on mainframes.
An example of a personal computiong operating system is Windows 2000.

Workgroups

To keep pace with today's high tech society, the technologh of the future must support a world in which network usage increases at a dramatic rate.
Network is for sharing resources (e.g. printers) and information (e.g. jivi)
In order to solve this problem it is necessary to develop powerful and flexible operating systems. An example is UNIX.

Enterprise

Enterprise operating systems are responsible for controlling expensive hardware such as mainframes and supercomputers.
A few years ago many professionals were predicting the end of enterprise software due to growth in small server. However high end hardware has proven to be valuable as it provides very high processing speeds and storage. An example of enterprise operating system is LINUX.

Consumer

Consumer operating systems allow individuals to exploit the most out of their personal figital assistants(PDA's) mobile phones, digital cameras, TV's and other appliances.
An example of a consumer operating system is Windows CE.Net.

System software has direct control and access to the computer hardware and memory locations and controls the hardware as well as consists of low level programs that interact with computers at a basic level. To make the application software do a task, operating system such as Microsoft Windows and Mac OS are the main example.

User Interface

One of the most important functions of an operating system is to provide a Command User Interface that allows individuals to access and command the computer. An example of this is MS DOS.
A Graphical User Interface use pictures(icons) and menus to display and send commands to the computer system. An example is the desktop on Microsoft XP.

Software

Software is a step by step instruction called program that tells the computer how to worl.

Examples of standard packages

Word processing - MS Word
Spreadsheets - MS Excel
Database Software - MS Access
Electronic presentation - MS PowerPoint

The major components of a computer system

hardware
Software
Database
Network

Common Hardware Functions

All applications must perform common tasks.

Get input from the keyboard or some other input device
Retrieve data from disk
Store data on disks
Display information on a monitor or printer.

Applicarion Software

Application Software consists of programs that help users solve a particular problem.
An example of application software is Microsoft words, 3DS max 9, photoshopCS6.

System Software

System software is the set of programs designed to coordinate the activities and functions of the hardware and various programs throughout the computer system.
Examples are Windows XP, Windows Vista, Linux in different flavors.

Computer Systen Types

Personal computers: are relatively small inexpensive computer systems, sometimes called micro computers.
Workstations: are personal computers that are connected to network.
Mid-range computers: are systems about the size of three drawer cabinet, They are usually used as servers. Which asks for services and server computer provides the service,
Mainframe computers: are large, powerful computers often shared by hundreds of connected machines by a network. However type of computer is becoming rarer as it is far cheaper to use workstations.
Servers: a server is a computer on a network designed for specific task, An example is a mail server which stores, retrieves and maintains an organizations emails.

Output Devices

Computer systems provide output to decision makers at all levels of an organization to solve business problems on a competitive opportunity.
Output comes in various forms including images, videos, audio and even digital data.
The most common output devices are:

Display monitor: a TV like screen device which output what the computer displays. However a monitor is different to TV as it has the ability to display high resolutions at a high frequency.
CRT: Cathode Ray Tubes are the most common form of display devices. CRT's work by firing electrons at a screen using an electron gun. However these devices are bulky as they require the electron gun to be at leaset 1 foot away from the screen.
LCD: Liquid Crystal Display units are much more popular as they are much more compact and versatile when compared to a CRT. LCD's were originally developed on laptops but have become common plane on PCs.
Printers and plotters: are devices that print hard copies of selected computer contents to paper. Printers come in various speeds, quality and size. Plotters are by far the largest and are generally used for design work such as blue prints and schematics.

Input Devices

There are literally thousands of devices that are used for data entry and input.
Put the data into the system
input devices range from special purpose devices that capture specific types of data to more general input types of devices.
The most common input devices are:

Keyboard: used to enter characters , text and basic commands
Mouse: is used to "point to " and "click on" symbols, icons, menus and commands on the screen.
Voice recognition devices: are another type of input device that recognizes human speech. These tools use microphones are special software to convert human speech into digital sigals
Digital cameras: stores images electronically and allows you to edit the pictures on any PC.
Scanning devices: images and documents can be inputted using a scanning device. Scanning devices utilize photo copier technology.
Barcode Scanners: are special scanning devices that can be used to scan documents, An example is the optical scanner used to read barcodes in the supermarket.
Touch sensitive screens: allows display screen to function as input as well as output devices, Touch screens have become very popular for information and service kiosk.(terminal= both input and output)

Secondary Storage

Secondary storage (permanent storage) allows computer systems to store large amount fo data instructions and information.
Compared with memory, secondary storage offers the advantages of non volatility (not losing data), greater capacity and greater economy.
it cannot be processed directly by the CPU.
Secondary memory is much slower
It includes magnetic disk like hard drive and floppy disks optical disks such as CDs and CD-ROMs and magnetic tapes which were the first forms of secondary memory.
Permanent
It has huge capacity

Access Methods

Data can be accessed in either sequential or direct.
Sequential access means that the data must be accessed in the order in which it is stored.
Direct access means that the data can be retrieved directly without the need to pass by other data in sequence.

Devices

Magnetic tapes: similar tape found in audio and video tapes. Portions of the tape are coated in iron oxide and magnetized to represent bits.
Magnetic disks: are coated in iron oxide steel and magnetized to represent bits
RAID: Redundant Array of Independent/Inexpensive Disks is a method of storing data in multiple copies of different drives. This process is called disk mirroring and provides an exact copy that protects users. It's a way of storing the same data in different places thus redundantly in multiple hard disks. By placing data on multiple disks, input and output operation can overlap in a balanced way improving performance. It is used for mirroring files and the redundancy helps to maintain two or more copies of the same data on different disks so if one disk fails the system can continue to operate by using the unaffected disk.
Optical: A common form of optical disk are compact disk read only memory (CD-ROM). However this form of optical disk can only be read. Optical is faster than magnetic.
DVD: Digital Versatile Disk (DVD) is a 5 inch disk that stores 5.3 GB plus (depends on the type). A DVD only reads information. However recently DVDs have also been developed that read and write.
Flash memory: is a silicon computer chip that unlike RAM keeps its memory when the power is shut off.

Recently developments in technology have allowed CD ROM's to be both read and write.

Memory Characteristics and Functions

Memory provides the CPU with a working storage area for program instruction and data.
Random Access Memory(RAM) which is temporary memory. Computer performance is depend on the CPU and the capacity of RAM.
Memory is located close to the CPU to decrease access time.
A part of the main computer system
The processor or the CPU directly stores and retrieves information from it.
CPU access this memory randomly it means that the CPU to either read information from it or store information in it can access any location of this memory.
Two types of memory technology implement the primary memory itself.
Primary memory is much faster,
VOLATILE in nature
the capacity is small.

Storage Capacity

Like the CPU, memory devices contain thousands of circuits imprinted on a silicon chip.
Each of these circuits act as a switch (either on or off)
Usually eight bit are used to represent a character, Eight bits form one byte.

Name	Abbreviation	Numbers of bytes
Byte	B	1
Kilobyte	KB	1024 Bytes
Megabyte	MB	1024 Kilobytes(about 1 million)
Gigabyte	GB	1024 Megabytes(about 1 billion)
Terabyte	TB	1024 Gigabytes(about 1 trillion)
Petabyte	PB	1024 Terabytes(about 1 quadrillion)

Types of Memory

RAM: Random Access Memory is temporary and has a high speed access
ROM: Read Only Memory is fixed and contains a set of hard coded instructions.
Cache: A type of high speed memory that CPU uses to store instructions waiting to be processed. Temporary memory which is used by CPU to store instructions to be executed.

Today's Memory

DDR SDRAM (double data rate synchronous dynamic random access memory)

Processing and Memory Devices

The components responsible for processing- the CPU and memory - are housed together in the same box or cabinet, called the system unit.
Million instruction per second(MIPS) measures the amount of instructions a CPU can calculate per second.
The processor processes the instruction.
Unit code Herz (cycle/second)
Each CPU produces a series of electronic pulses at a predetermined rate, called the clock speed.

Hardware Components

Computer system hardware components include devices that perform the functions of input, processing, data storage and output
hardware=device

A central processing unit(CPU) is a part of a computer that consists of three associated elements:

Arithmetic/logic units

The arithmetic logic unit(ALU) performs mathmatical calculations and makes logical comparisons
The control unit sequentially accesses program instructions, decodes(binary function) them and coordinates the flow of data in and out of the ALU, the registers primary storage and secondary storage devices.

The control unit(control data)
The register areas

Internet domain

Internet domain identify the sting that defines a realm of administrative autonomy, authority or control over the internet and there are several levels in the domain name. The first one is top level domain and this interprets the authority of the business, For example, if the top level domain is .org people can understand that the website is owned by an organization, .edu for educational organization and .gov is for government. Furthermore the top level domain identifies the country such as .au for Australia and .jp for Japan. For a business in regards to e-commerce it is important to regisatr and have an unique and short domain name to let people access easily to the site and have a look at the products or services.

HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol)

The Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is an application protocol for distributed collaborative hypermedia information system. HTTP is the foundation of data communication for the World Wide Web.

FTP(File Transfer Protocol)

File Transfer Protocol is a standard network protocol used to transfer files from one host to another hsot over a TCP based network such as the internet.

Threats to E-commerce

E-commerce incidents: legitimacy of sites, legitimacy of customers
Theft of intellectual property: music, books, invention,,,,,
Fraud: spam, hacking
Invasion of consumer privacy.

Electronic payment system

Key component of the e-commerce infrastructure
Rely on user identification and encryption
Payment methods: electronic cash and smart, credit adn debit cars
Paypal

Technology Infrastructure

Hardware:

Web Server software: security and Identification, retrieving and sending Web pages, web site tracking, web site development
E-commerce software: Catalog management, product configuration, shopping cart
e-commerce transaction processing : web traffic Data Analysis
Network and packet switching

An online is a piece of software that acts as an online store;s catalog and ordering process and is the interface between a company's website online shoppers. Although it allows customers to select goods and review what they have selected. If it is necessary, customers can modify or add as well as buy products. For online customer, they can save products inside of their house.

E-commerce Application

Retail and Wholesale: electronic retailing(e-tailing), cybermall (example ausmall)
Manufacturing: electronic exchange
Marketing: market segmentation, technology-enabled relationship management(gumtree)
Investment and Finance: online stock trading, online banking
Auction

Supply Chain Management and E-commerce

Three sub-processes;

Demand planning to anticipate market demand
Supply planning to allocate the right amount of enterprise resources to meet demand
Demand fulfillment to fulfill demand quickly and efficiently.

Requires integrating all sub processes
Advantages

Increase revenues, decrease cost
Improve customer satisfaction
Reduce inventory

E-commerce Challenges

Hard to distinguish from the same products or services provided by other sellers
Security and reliably issues
Bandwidth problems
Technology is rapidly changing
It may be difficult to integrate legacy
SW systems with Internet and ex SW
Perishable products are harder to sell online
Cost and justification
In house development is usually very expesive
Outsourcing is an option but there are complex management issues
Benefits may be hard to quantify
Lack of consumer trust
Legal issues
Cultural and legal obstacles also exist.

The Development and Growth of E-commerce

Electronic funds transfers(EFTs)

Also called wire transfers
Electronic transmission of account exchange information over private communications networks

Electronic data interchange(EDI)

transmitting computer readable data in a standard format to another business

Trading Partners

Businesses that engage in EDI with each other

Value-added network(VAN)

Independent firm that offers connection and transaction forwarding services to buyers and sellers engaged in EDI.

E-commerce Types

Business to Business(B2B)

allow manufacturers to buy at a low cost worldwide
offer enterprises the chance to sell at a global market right from the start.
currently the largest type of e-commerce
Example: manufacturer and retailers
Intel sells micro to Dell, ASI, Toshiba and other companies which produce computers over the internet.
IBM gives the service of product issue managements to many businesses such as Toshiba and Fujitsu though online due to outsourcing of the service.

Business to consumer(B2C)

relatively new
enable producers to sell directly to consumers
eliminate the intermediaries
reduce cost, lead to higher profits and lower prices for consumers
we can buy Jetstar's airplane tickets online.
Apple store sells their products, music and video on apple online store.

Consumer to consumer(C2C)

involve consumers selling directly to other consumers
Examples: online auction methods(eBay), Trading post
My friend is selling his motorbike to someone through gumtree,
My flatmate bought photoshop and other adobe products through e-bay.

Business to government(B2G)

Business sells Goods and services to governments
Example: CAL-BUY portal allows business to sell online to the state of California.

E-commerce

E-commerce is a new way of conducting business and as with other new application of technology, it presents both opportunities for improvement and potential problems.

Advantages

reduce transaction costs
speed the flow of goods and information
improve the level of customer service
enable the close coordination of actions among manufacturers, suppliers and customers.
enable consumers and companies to gain access to worldwide markets
Help developing countries to enter the global marketplace; hence reduce the gap between rich and poor countries.
if advertising is done well on the web, it can get a firm's promotional message out to potential customers in every country.
Using e-commerce sales support and order taking processing a business can reduce costs of handling sales inquiries.
It increases purchasing opportunities for buyers.

Executive Support Systems

A executive support system is a software system under control of one of many decision-makers that assists in their activity of decision making providing and to improve the ultimate effectiveness of the decision outcome.
Characteristics of an Executive Support Systems

Tailored to individual executives
Easy to use
Have drill down abilities
Support the need for external data
Can help with situations that have high degree of uncertainty
Are linked with value added business processes

Capabilities of an Executive Support System

Support for defining overall vision
Support for strategic planning
Support for strategic organizing and staffing
Support for strategic control
Support crisis management

Comparisons

Factor	DSS	MIS
Problem Type	A DSS is good at handling unstructured problems the cannot be programmed.	An MIS is normally used with more structured problems.
Users	A DSS supports individuals, small groups and the entire organization. In short run, users typically have more control over a DSS.	A MIS supports primary functions of the organization. In short run, users have less control over an MIS.
support	A DSS supports all aspects and phases of decision making, it does not replace the decision maker- people still make decisions.	This is not true of all MIS systems, some make automatic decisions and replace the decision maker.
speed	A DSS is flexible and can be implemented by users, it usually takes less time to develop and is better able to respond to user requests.	An MIS's reponse time is usually longer.
Output	DSS reports are usually screen oriented, with the ability to generate reports on a printer.	An MIS however typically is oriented towards printed reports and documentation.
Development	DSS users are usually more directly involved in development. User involvement usually means better systems that provide superior support.	An MIS is frequently several years old and often is developed for people who are no longer perform work supported by the MIS.

Programmed vs Non programmed

Programmed decisions are made using rules, procedures or quantitative methods. For example, to say that inventory is ordered if it drops below 100.
Non programmed decisions deal with unusual or exceptional situations, An example is determining the appropriate training program of a new employee. This is difficult as there are many variables to consider. (age, gender, education)

Decision making and problem solving

A well known model developed by Herbert Simon divides the decision making phase into three stages

Intelligence

Intelligence stage: the first stage of decision making in which problems or opportunities are identified and defined.
An example is determining how to ship fruit from Hawaii to Australia. There are several factors to consider such as spoilage and cost/

Design

Design stage: in the second stage of decision making alternative solution to the problem are developed.
For example in the tropical fruit example you may decide there are several transport methods such as air and sea freight.

Choice

Choice stage: the third stage of decision making requires selecting a course of action.
In our tropical fruit example the best course of action is air freight to avoid spoilage.

Decision Support Systems

Serve management level with data analysis for making decisions.

input: low volume data or massive databases, analytic models and data analysis tools
processing: interactive, simulations, analysis
output: special reports, decision analyses, responses to queries
users: professionals, senior managers

Characteristics of Decision Support Systems

Handle large amounts of data from different sources
Provide report and presentation flexibility
Offer both textual and graphical orientation
Support drill down analysis
Perform complex, sophisticated analysis and comparisons using advanced software.

Components of a Decision Support Systems

Dialogue manager is a user interface that allows decision makers to easily access and manipulate the DSS.
Database
Model base provides decision makers with access to a variety of models and to assist them in making decisions.

Advantage

Helps saving time

DSS helps to reduce decision cycle time for an organization. DSS provides timely information, which is then used for decision making and results in enhanced employee productivity.

Improves efficiency

DSS can help to do efficient decision making resulting in better decisions, This is because use of DSS results in quick transfer of information, better analyses, thus resulting in efficient decisions.

Boost up interpersonal communication

Use of DSS in an organization helps to improve interpersonal communication between same level of employees and between management and employees.

Disadvantage

Cost

DSS requires investing in information system to collect data from many sources and analysis them to support system needs and the advance of data analysis statistics econometrics and information system and it costs expensive to hire the specialists to set up the system.

Overemphasize decision making

Implementing decision support system may reinforce the rational perspective and overemphasize decision about the context of decision making and the social, political and emotional factors.

Information overload

Too much information is a major problem for people and many DSS increases the information load and it can decrease decision making effectiveness.

Decision support system is a specific class of computerized information system that supports business and organization decision making activities as well as a system which allow executives to analyze the business data using different data with analyzing tools.

意思決定支援システムとは、コンピュータを利用した情報システムあるいは、エキスパートシステムの一種で、その名の通り意思決定を支援する。
意思決定には、汎用的モデルが定まっていないため、また意思決定を必要とする領域範囲は広いため意思決定支援システムの概念も幅広い。
DSSには、様々な形態がある。最小限の定義をするとすれば、DSSは、意思決定をするためのシステムである。意思決定とは、複数の選択肢から予想される価値を判断してひとつの選択肢を選ぶことである。意思決定を支援するとは、この予想および比較を支援することによって選択を支援することに他ならない。

Management Information Systems

Serve management level: provide reports and access to company data

Input: Summary transaction data, high volume data, simple models
Processing: Routine reports, simple models, low level analysis
Output: Summary reports
Users: Middle manager

A management information system is a computer system designed to help managers plan and direct a businesses operations
Provides management-oriented reporting usually in a predetermined, fixed format.
Input of Management Information System

Data that enters a management information system originates from both internal and external sources
The most significant internal source is the organization's various transaction processing systems and enterprise resource planning systems.

Outputs of Management Information Systems

Scheduled reports are produced periodically or on a schedule such as daily or weekly.
Demand reports are developed to give certain information at a managers request.
Exception reports are automatically produced when a situation is unusual or requires management action.
Drill down reports provide increasingly detailed data about a situation.

Functional aspects of a Management Information system

Financial
Manufacturing
Marketing
Human resource management
Accounting

Management Information System is an organized approach to the study of the information needs of an organization's management at every level in making operational, tactical and strategic decisions. In management information system, there is a component which gather the information and data is that inputting the data and make the data as information oriented and storing the data as well as making output report of the management.

Types of Decision

Wednesday 3 October 2012

Enterprise Resource Planning

Enterprise resource planning is real-time monitoring of business functions, which permits timely analysis of key issues such as quality, availability, customer satisfaction, performance and profitability.
Advantage

Elimination of costly, inflexible legacy systems
Improvement of work processes
Increases access to data for operational decision making

Disadvantage

Upgrade of technology infrastructure
Expense and time of implementation
Difficulty implementing change
Difficulty integrating with other systems
Risks using one vendor

企業資源計画は、企業全体を経営資源の有効活用の観点から統合的に管理し、経営の効率化を図るための手法、概念のこと。

International issues

Businesses are increasingly operating across country borders or around the globe.
Numerous complication arise that multinational corporations must address in planning, building and operating their transaction processing systems.
International issues to be considered include:

Different language and cultures
Disparities in information system infrastructure
Varying laws and customs rules
Multiple currencies

Control and Management Issues

Transaction processing systems are the backbone of any organizations information system. Therefore it's essential all contingencies are estimated and planned.
Disaster recovery planning is the process of anticipating disasters. Disaster can be natual such as flooding or man-made such as human error.
Transaction processing system audit is the examination to see whether the system meets the business needs for which it was implemented,
For example, major banks frequently audit their ATM network.

Traditional transation processing methods

Batch processing systems is where business transaction are accumulated for a period of time and prepared for processing as a single unit or batch. This is the original form of transaction processing.
An example is a payroll system calculating employee's pay at the end of each week.
Today's computer technology allows another processing method called online transaction processing.
Online transaction processing(OTLP) is where each transaction is processed immediately without delay.

Objectives

Process data generated by and about transactions.
Maintain a high degree of accuracy and integrity
Produce time documents and reports
Increase labor effeciency
Help provide increased service

Transaction Processing activities

The transaction processing cycle is the process of

Data collection
Data editing
Data manipulation
Data storage
Document production

Traditional transaction processing application

There are several common transaction processing system utilized within business, they support:

Ordering
Purchasing
Accounting

The order entry system captures basic information to process a customer order,
An example is Pepsi-America recently upgraded their order system so sales reps could make orders for their customers using their pocket PCs.
An inventory control system updates the computerized inventory records to reflect the exact quantity on hand of each stock keeping unit.
For example Dell uses an inventory management system to capture real-time sales data to enable them to keep track of sales in any region in any given day.
The payroll system calculates the pay for employee's of an organization.
Payroll transaction processing systems also provide input into various weekly. quarterly, and yearly reports.

Transaction Processing Systems

A transaction processing system is a computer system which responds immediately to user requests. Each request is considered to be a transaction.
Automatic teller machines for banks are an example of transaction processing.
Basic business system that serve the organization's operational level

input:Transactions, events
Processing, Sorting, listing, merging, updating
Output: Detailed reports, lists
Users:Operations personnel, supervisors

functions

Create( e.g. opening account):capture data
Read( e.g. check balace): retrieve data
Update( e.g. change contact): modify data
delete (e.g. remove)
enter data

Strategic Planning

To be competitive a company must be fast, flexible and innovative.
In order to achieve this, it is necessary to plan strategically for the future.
Examples of strategic planning include;

Altering the industry structure
Creating new products and services
Improving existing product lines and services
Using Information Systems for strategic purposes.

Downsizing

Downsizing involves reducing the number of employees to reduce cost.
Examples of downsizing in recent years include all major Australian banks.

Outsourcing

Outsourcing involves contracting with outside professional services to meet specific business needs.
Outsourcing is an arrangement where one company provides services to another company that would otherwise have been implemented in-house.
An example is Telstra outsourcing its Call Centers to an Indian company.
An example, American Express hired IBM for about $4 billion over 7 years to manage its website, network servers, data storage and help desk operations.

The advantage

The advantage of outsourcing is that saving costs, indeed Optus hires people in India for call centers because average salaries of India is cheaper than Australian one.

The disadvantage

There could be some issues with language and different understanding about computer based information system and because of the different understanding the ideas people could argue and slow down the development.

Factors affecting system development outcomes
Development Phases

System Investigation Phase
System Analysis Phase
System Design Phase
System Implementation Phase
System Maintenance Phase
System Review Phase

Total Quality Management

Total Quality Management(TQM) consists of a collection of approaches tools and techniques that offers a commitment to quality throughout the organization.
All information system must adhere to TQM industry standards.

組織全体として統一した品質管理目標への取り組みを炯々戦略へ適用したものである。

Continuous Improvement

The idea of continuous improvement is to constantly seek ways to improve the business processes to add values to products or services.

Traditional Approach	Continuous Improvement
Strong action taken to solve a business problem	Routine action taken to make minor improvement
Top-down driven by senior manager	Worker driven
Broad in scope; cuts across department	Narrow in Scope; focus on tasks in given area.
Goal is to achieve a major breakthrough	Goal is continuous; gradual improvement
Often led by outsider	Usually led by workers close to business
Information system integral to the solution	Information systems provide data to guide improvement team.

Organizational Culture and Change

Organizational Culture consists of the major understanding and assumptions for a business, corporation or organization.
Organizational Change deals with how profit and not-for-profit organizations plan for, implement and handle change.
The Change Model is a representation of change theories and the best way to implement them.

Unfreezing : is the process of ceasing old habits and creating a climate of receptive change.
Moving : is the process of learning new methods, new behaviors systems.
Freezing: involves reinforcing changes to make the new process second nature.

Organizational Structure

Organizational structure refers to organizational sub units and the way they relate to the overall organization.

There are six types of organizational structures

Flat

Flat organizational structure is an organizational structure with a reduced number of management structures.
Small venture company such as English communication helping company which has small number of employees. In the company , CEO only has the authority of decision making and others do not have.

Traditional(Hierarchical)

Traditional Organizational Structure is a management pyramid that shows the decision making and authority from the strategic management to operational management and non management employee.
A big IT company such as IBM uses this model because there is a CEO and amny directors in each departments also in the each team there are many general managers and they are decision making people and there are many employees who do not have a role of decision making.

Project

Project Organizational Structure is centered on major products or services.
In a manufacturing firm that produces baby food and other baby products, each line is produced by a separate unit(project).

Team

Team Organizational Structures is centered on work team or groups.
An example is Harley Davidson, each team is responsible for developing a ccertain component of a motorbike.

Multidimensional

Multidimensional Organizational Structure may incorporate several structures at the same time.
HP/Compaq, they have traditional structures such as accounting and project based structures for research and development.

Virtual

Virtual Organizational Structure employs individuals, groups or complete business units in geographically dispersed area.
Most universities use the visual organizational structure to conduct worldwide reseach.

Value Chain Management

A value chain is a series of activities involved in producing shipping and receiving goods.
Managing these activities is often called supply chain management.
There are two types of value chain management

Upstream management

the process of creating products

Downstream management

the process of shipping and selling products to consumers.

Organisation and Information Systems

An organization is a formal collection of people and other resources established to accomplish a set of goals.
Organizations are composed of information systems.
Information system collate, organize, sort and store information.

the essential components of an information system

Hardware

The term hardware refers to machinery. This category includes the computer itself, which is often referred as the contral processing unit(CPU), and all of its support equipments. Among the support equipments are input and output devices, storage devices and communication devices.

Software

The term software refers to computer programs and the manuals that support them, Computer programs are machine-readable instructions that direct the circuitry within the hardware [arts of the CBIS to function in ways that produce useful information from data. Programs are generally stored on some input and output medium often a disk or tape.

Data

Data are facts that are uised by programs to produce useful information. Like programs, data are generally stored in machine-readable from on disk or tape until the computer needs them.

Procedure

Procedures are the policies that govern the operation of a computer system. "Procedures are to people what software is to hardware" is a common analogy that is used to illustrate the role of procedures in a CBIS.

People

Every CBIS needs people if it is to be useful. Often the most over-looked element of the CBIS are the people, probably the component that most influence the success or failure of information system.